The History of the Ottoman Empire (All Parts) - 1299 - 1922

0:04 The Ottoman Empire was one of the world's longest lasting and most dominant empires throughout history. Known also as the Turkish Empire, the Ottoman power was a state that controlled territory spanning across Europe, Asia, and Africa for over 600 years. In their first 100 years, due to their impressive abilities to take advantage of their weaker neighbors, and due to the massive mistakes made by kingdoms of the Balkans and other Christian powers, including the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans will rise from a small bail to a regional power, and they will use this position as a stepping stone to expand even more. The conquering force began around the year 1299 when Osman I a Muslim leader

0:53 from the town of Sout Anatolia styled himself as supreme leader or sultan following a string of raids led by Osman and his Gazi troops against their Byzantine opposition. The name of the empire, Ottoman, is derived from the name of its first leader and founder. Osman, whose name was actually Uman in Arabic, left behind a scarce amount of information about his life, but gave the world an empire in his name. Consequently, due to the lack of reliable contemporary sources about the Muslim leader, current historians struggle to determine what tales have been fabricated over the years and which ones are in fact true. According to Ottoman lore, Osman I was the son of Erigil and grandson of Salleman Sha,

1:41 both of whom were from the K tribe of Ogus Turks. Although the latter connection has been debated by Ottoman genealogologists. Nonetheless, Osman I was the man responsible for creating the first foundations of the 600year running empire. Taking advantage of the disintegration Seljic dynasty in Iran and Mesopotamia which was vanquished in 1293, Osman began expanding his territory through Anatolia as the chief rival to the Byzantine Christians. By the start of the 14th century, the newly founded Ottoman Empire began to spread birectionally, approaching the Sea of Marura and along the Sakaria River. Unfortunately for the eager conquerors,

2:26 their siege equipment was insufficient, making it momentarily impossible for them to capture some of the bigger Byzantine cities and territories such as Constantinople. It wasn't until 1326 that the Ottomans were able to capture the city of Bersa, which would later be styled their new capital in 1335. Around the time of this victory, the first sultan, Osman I passed away, leaving his son Orhan as the second Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Under Orhan's reign, the Turks were now able to start strengthening their power and authority after seizing Bersa, where the tome of Osman I still remains. As part of his military bolstering, Orhan

3:13 went to his brother Aladden for advice. Aladdin suggested that Orhan create an army of men who were paid and trained infantrymen. This is opposed to the method of the predecessors armies which were made up of contingents and volunteers who only came together for the campaign or battle at hand. Orhan enacted this new strategy but quickly became dissatisfied and decided to look to a relative through marriage, Kandari Cara Halil, for new guidance. Kandari came up with the idea for what later would be known as the Janiseries. The body of troops was to be made up of children from Christian families in territories that had been conquered by the Ottomans, which would be converted to Islam and trained as elite infantrymen and slaves to the

3:59 Sultan. Making up the first modern standing army in Europe, the Janiseries were known for their extreme loyalty to the Sultan, ensured by strict policies and rules applied to them throughout their service, such as the outlaw of marriage. While the Janisary troops weren't considered to have truly been established until the rule of Morad I, the introductory steps were made during Orhan's time of consolidation. Also on the mind of the second sultan was expansion. This became a heavier focus in 1331 with the capture of Isnik following a few years later by the seizure of Ismmit in 1337 and then the taking of Uscodar in 1338.

4:48 Only seven years after the latest of those successes, Orhan was then able to occupy the principality of Karasi. Around which time he also became an ally to John V 6th Kakazenis, the later Byzantine emperor. Through this new union, Orhan was additionally able to gain permission to raid the region of Thrace. A goal of the Ottomans, of course, being to capture this area and marry the daughter of Kagazenis, Theodora. Furthermore, under the command of Solomon Pasha, one of Orhan's sons, the Ottomans spread their control to Gallipoli in 1354, despite Kakazenus' attempts to peacefully remove them in response to Byzantine fears. The raids

5:36 throughout Gallipoli had also brought in remarkable rewards and treasures to the Ottomans, which attracted the attention of thousands of Turks around Anatolia who wished to join the empire's forces. Orhan refused to give up this new territory that he claimed was gifted to him by Allah, causing considerable backlash for the now Emperor Kakazenis, which unintentionally helped lead to his downfall and turmoil within Byzantium. Things within the Ottoman world also began to shift in 1362 following the death of Sultan Orhan who was roughly 80 years old at the time. His son had died a few years prior in a hunting accident. And it is believed that the toll of this loss may have led to Orhan's sudden

6:21 demise. Regardless, Morad I, another son of Orhan, was next in line to become the empire's third sultan, which he did with a dramatic entrance. In 82, the eager sultan began to put pressure on Bulgaria, first convincing Emperor Ivan Shishman to surrender his country as a vassel, becoming part of a new policy enacted by Morad in Europe, where the native rulers of existing principalities would remain in their place if they accepted the sarrenty of the Sultan, accompanied by the provision of contingents for the Ottoman army. Seemingly not giving importance to this agreement, Morad and his troops then continued pushing on to seize Sophia,

7:08 Perro, and N. These decisive actions led to the next major victory for the empire, allowing them to conquer Serbia after the famed battle of Casovo in 1389. While both armies were severely deteriorated and the leaders on either side were killed during the conflict, the Ottomans still had more troops elsewhere who could be called upon and were granted overall victory as the domino effect of acquiring Serbian principality. Ensuing the death of Sultan Morad I, now under the reigns of Beaazid I, one of his sons, the Ottomans were forced to return to Anatolia and deal with the repercussions of their calamitous victory efforts. On top of

7:55 restoration duties, Beaazid was also suddenly faced with an increasing threat from the principality of Caraman. Morad had previously taken some minor steps to avoid the new power, which was built at top the remains of the fallen Seljic dynasty from attempting to take his newly seized territories. But that was about all the attention he'd given it. Beazed was unable to ignore the rising concern by this point with Caraman moving to the forefront of Ottoman focus after the capture of territory and Gerian Tech and Hamid. In an attempt to keep his Turkish followers from siding with the potential rivals, Beazed chose to make peace with Caraman before moving on to capture Bulgaria and finally venture the daunting task of laying siege to

8:41 Constantinople. In response to the latter act, the Christians undertook a crusade with the goal of defeating the invading Ottoman forces. This resulted in the battle of Necopoulos in 1396 which was won by Beaazid and his troops massacring the crusader army that was made up of Hungarians, Germans, French and other Christian allies. Presumably feeling confident after the success at Nicopoulos, Beazid and his men returned to annex Carmen in 1397 despite the previously agreed on peace treaty. The Sultan's reach now spanned across the Balkans and into Asia, making him one of the most powerful Muslim leaders at the time. His goal seemed to be that

9:28 of his predecessors and future successors expand. While there is relatively very little information dating back to the first 100 years of Ottoman power, we do know that the period of time from 1300 through400 served as a springboard for the empire's growth and prosperity that was to come. [Music] The start of the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire marked the final years of Beaazid I's reign as Sultan. In 1400,

10:15 major tensions began to rise between the Ottoman leader and the Turo Mongol warlord by the name of Timur. This once cold war reached a heated climax in 1402 at the battle of Anara. While on his way back through Anatolia to confront the threat of his powerful rival, Beazid was caught off guard by Tamur and his troops as they besieged the city of Anara, withholding the only source of water for the Ottoman troops and forcing them to engage in battle. By the end of the conflict, Tamur's army

11:00 prevailed while Beazid and his sons attempted to make an escape. Beaazid himself and two of his sons, Musa and Mustafa Chalebi, were captured by Tamur, though the rest were successful in their getaway. Muso was released in 1403 and Mustafa was held in Samurand until the death of Tamur in 1405 at which point he went into hiding within the territories of some of his allies. Less fortunately, Beaazid had passed away shortly after he was taken into custody. It is debated whether he was treated well by Timur and his men or not. But either way, this was the end of the fourth Ottoman Sultan's rule. After Beaazit's downfall, the leadership of

11:48 the empire was thrown into complete turmoil. The remaining sons of the late Sultan now sparked a decadel long civil war referred to as the Ottoman interregnum. Timur had confirmed Memed Chalbby as the new Sultan before he had passed. But Issa, Musa, and Sullyan were unhappy with this decision. The brothers all felt that they themselves were entitled to the Ottoman throne and therefore did not recognize Memed's authority. Sullivan had established his capital in Edern, formerly known as Adrianople, and extended his power throughout all of Thrace and the southeastern reign of Europe, stretching down to northern

12:35 Greece. Memed centered his control in the city of Amasia. Meanwhile, Issa and Musa fought for control over Bersa, eventually leading to Issa obtaining dominion. This rise of power incited a new conflict between Issa and Memed. And after multiple defeats, Issa sought refuge in Constantinople as Memed now took command of Bersa. Not long later, another battle between the brothers ensued at Karasi, now sending Issa fleeing to Caraman. It is said that Issa was later killed after being spotted in a public bath by order of Memed. Solon who had backed Issa during the strife with Memed

13:21 now went on to successfully capture Bersa and later Anara from the previously victorious brother. For the next few years, an alliance formed and flourished between Memed and Musa. the latter being sent across the Black Sea to serve as Sultan to the European part of the empire. Sullyon touted an alliance with Manuel II Paleologos and eventually won over the Serbs by the end of the battle of Cosmidian in 1410. During this battle, Muso was defeated by Sullivan, though the tide would shortly turn once again. [Music] Due to apparent temperamental issues, Solomon found himself rapidly losing

14:07 allies and support. Taking advantage of the defections and abandonment on his brother's side, Musa found triumph at Ederern in 1411. Sullyon attempted to escape into Byzantine protection, but was murdered on his way, leaving Musa and Memed as co-sults of the Ottoman Empire. Clearly unhappy about the Byzantine Emperor's loyalty to Solomon, Musa decided to lay siege to Constantinople as retaliation. Emperor Manuel in turn requested assistance from Memed, who made multiple attempts to defend him in a blatant breach of the agreement made with Musa. Unable to stay in Constantinople for long though, Memed

14:55 had to return to his own territory in order to deal with a mutiny before looking to the Serbian autocrat Stfan Lazarvich for help. Now returning to face his brother with new strength, Memed and his army met with Musa and his forces at Chimurlu, resulting in a defeat for Musa and his later capture and murder. Finally freed of the constant looming menace of his brother's attempts to seize his power, Memed Shalebi became Sultan Memed I, accepting complete sovereignty over the empire and uniting those who had been divided during the longunning civil war. Throughout the rest of his reign, Memed focused on consolidating power across

15:40 both Anatolia and the European region. He was faced with several challenges along the way, including a dispute with Mustafa, his remaining brother, who had finally come out of hiding. A theologian and revolutionary by the name of Shik Bedradine also posed a threat to Memed's authority, sparking a discord that would last 4 years until the agitator was finally captured and hanged. Memed's tumultuous rule finally came to an end with his death in 1421, leaving control of the empire to his son Marad II. During the start of Morad's time as Sultan, Manuel II, Paleologos made a deal with Mustafa Chalbby to free him

16:27 from the exile he had been forced into before Muhammad I's death. The Byzantine emperor recognized Mustafa as the true heir to what had once been Bazid I's throne, but he only found success for a short while before Morad finally ended Mustafa's campaign with his execution. Attention was now directed toward punishing the Byzantines for this unprovoked hostility. In an attempt to do just that, Morad decided to besiege Constantinople, but was recalled back to Bersa after Manuel attempted to utilize Morad's 13-year-old rebellious brother to fight back against him. The boy's revolt was subdued and Morad was able to

17:13 refocus his efforts towards fortifying his dominion by reestablishing his authority over the Anatolian vassels and principalities as well as continued effort to expand further into Europe. Conflicts with Venice, Serbia, Hungary, and other nonallies became a regular occurrence near the end of the 1420s. In 1444, Morad faced a Christian coalition of crusaders at the Battle of Varna. Led by John Hunyatti, the Hungarians and their allies were soundly defeated in what could only be deemed an embarrassing retreat.

17:58 One notable detail of this battle is the fact that Vlad Draal, the current Valleian Vivo, had sent a small contingent under his eldest son to assist Hunyatti and his crusaders, despite the fact that Morad was holding Draal's two youngest sons as hostages to ensure allegiance from Valahia. Not much came of this situation until later, but it serves as a clear demonstration of the frequent betrayals that plagued the times. Before the battle of Varna, Morad had actually abdicated his throne to one of his sons, Memed II. Displeased with this immense responsibility as merely a child, Memed urged his father to return

18:44 and lead their troops against the Christian forces that aimed to take advantage of a young new sultan. After undertaking the task and trouncing the crusading effort, Morad went back into retirement until he was required to return in order to quell a janisary revolt. It wasn't long before the elder sultan was once again forced to meet the troops of Christian Europe. This time on the battlefield of Kosovo, still following the lead of John Hunyatti, a union of Hungarian Valleian Mulavian and other allied troops, attempted to execute a new strike against the Ottomans in an effort to avenge their previous defeat at Varna. Caught off guard by Morad and his troops

19:29 who had intercepted the crusaders at the Casovo Plefield, John Hunyatti and his army faced another humiliating loss. Morad was now able to finish out his reign by addressing the issue of Timur's son Shahok and gaining command over the leaders of the Churom Amasio region. In addition to an attempt, though unsuccessful, at defeating the Albanian forces of Scanderberg at the castle of Kruj. By the end of 1451, Mad had fallen ill and passed away, leaving Memed II as Sultan once again. Memed II later deemed Memed the Conqueror for the remarkable

20:16 accomplishments during his reign, immediately looked to complete the task of finally capturing Constantinople, as many of his predecessors had ventured to do. In a ploy to curb any distractions, Memed signed peace treaties with both Hungary and Venice while preparing his navy for the future siege of Bzantium's heart. In 1453, with an army of around 80,000 troops or more, over 100 naval ships, and something the previous sultans lacked, cannons. Memed began the campaign that would eventually be called the fall of Constantinople. The siege lasted over 50 days and

21:02 resulted in a concise victory for the Ottomans who now declared Constantinople their new capital. Memed also styled himself the Caesar of the Roman Empire, a title that was denied to him by the Roman Catholic Church, but accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church. The young Sultan then captured the final remaining Byzantine states and pressed further on into Europe. In a reign marked by drastic government changes, creating a more centralized bureaucracy and appointing only those who could be loyal to him and his agenda to his court, as well as continual back and forths between his empire and the European Christians. One of the most prominent storylines may be the

21:47 relationship between Memed II and Vlad III Dracula. As previously mentioned, two of Vlad Drakal's sons had been held hostage by Morad II. These boys, Radu and Vlad III, Dracula, grew up alongside Memed, and each developed starkly different relationships with him. While Radu would choose to stay within the Ottoman Empire and serve as a lifelong friend and ally to Memed, Vlad became a persistent opponent who fought against his contemporaries will until his final breath. While some claim that his long-standing strife with the voyode of the much smaller region and military shows a weakness in Memon, it instead

22:33 gives us a profound look at his personality and mindset before ultimately pulling back from his attempts to overpower and defeat Vlad Dracula. Memed is recorded to have said that he could not take land away from a man who does such marvelous things. And surely a man who had accomplished this is worthy of greater things. These statements from the Sultan himself display not only a level of respect for his adversary but also his confidence in the Ottoman Empire as a whole during his rule. Memed was willing to walk away from a conflict that he saw no near success in because he was head of essentially two empires, having more or less absorbed the Byzantine Empire and

23:20 knew that his power could not truly be stifled so easily. This tone of tolerance extended past Memed himself and can be seen again during the reign of his son Beaazit II, who claimed the throne after his father's death in 1481. The start of Beazed II's term as Sultan is slightly stained by a conflict with his brother Kem. Once his position was secured, Beaazid began to make some changes to his father's policy and put a strong emphasis on domestic politics throughout both the East and West, establishing a more well-ordered system. Though not remembered entirely for the conflicts he engaged in, Beazid did put notable

24:07 effort into conquering new Venetian territories and Balkan lands. Nonetheless, the most remarkable decision under Beaazid II to round out the 15th century may have been his reaction to the expulsion of both Muslims and Jews from Spain in 1492. Beazid condemned Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella I sending the Ottoman navy over to safely relocate the banished Muslims and Jews to his own territories. He told every leader under his authority that they were to welcome all of the refugees and would be punished by death if they were to treat the Jews any differently than their Muslim counterparts. This extraordinary act led to an

24:53 increase of new skills, enhancements, and ideas being brought into the empire which resulted in heightened success for the welcoming Sultan. By the end of the 1400s, Beaazid II remained on the Ottoman throne as a wellrespected and prosperous leader, earning the epithet of the just. Beasid may be one of the more underrated rulers of the empire today. He, just like those throughout the rest of the century, accomplished noteworthy feats that helped to continue the propulsion of the Ottoman Empire and its power into the many, many years to come. At the onset of the 16th century in the

25:39 Ottoman realm, Beaazid II was already locked in an intense naval war with the Venetians that would last until 1503, tackling the new century with a desire for further consolidation. The Ottomans under the command of Admiral Kamal Rice found triumph by the end of this Turkish Venetian war ultimately forcing the Venetians to once again come to a peace agreement with the Turks. While this victory served well for the continued fortifying of Ottoman power in Europe over in Anatolia, the environment was becoming increasingly unstable. By the year of 1511, supporters of the

26:24 Sevafid dynasty began to rebel against the growing dominance of the Ottoman Empire. Though they were forced to back down after the defeat of their leader, Shakulu. Meanwhile, bitter dissension over the succession of the throne developed between Beaazid's sons, Salem and Ahmed. As both candidates attempted to rally support from different territories and leaders, the Sultan's advisers and Janisary Corpse began to show a preference towards Salem, concurrent with Beaazid's increasing concern about the possibility of Ahmed seeking aid from Sha in Persia. Finally, in 1512, Sultan Beazed II made his decision by abdicating to Salem, who

27:11 would later have his brother put to death to avoid any further conflict. Based passed away only a month after his retirement. Swiftly upon ascension to the throne, Sultan Sem I eradicated any potential threats to his position by having his brothers and nephews executed, allowing himself to focus solely on any external dangers. One of these hazards came in the form of the Sha Isma and his Kazilbash Turkman adherence over in Anatolia. briskly putting an end to a revolt brought by the Kazilbash. Sem then turned to Ismael himself, subsequently overpowering the Sha's

27:56 forces at the Battle of Chaldder in 1514. While the Seafid troops consisted of simple cavalry men, Salem's army, which was upwards of 100,000 men, was able to rely on musketss and cannons. By the end of the clash, the Ottomans moved on to seize Trees, which had been the Savafid capital, [Music] then continued toward the Mammluk dynasty of Egypt, emerging victorious from both the battle of Marge Dig in 1516

28:42 and the battle of Radenia. In 1517 against the Mammlook forces, the Ottomans in doing so were able to bring Egypt, Hijaz, and all of the Levant into their empire. Thus, by Salem I's death in 1520, not only had the cultural and geographical nucleus of the empire shifted, but it is believed that his reign brought forth an expansion of roughly 70%. Following the passing of his father, Salem's only son, Sleimon I became the next and later widely revered sultan of the Ottoman Empire. Known in the west as

29:29 the magnificent and by the Ottomans themselves as the lawgiver. Solomon birthed a time of immense military, legal and cultural change within the empire. While the chief Sharia law or sacred law was not something that could be changed by the sultan, Sullyon was able to do some notable restructuring of the canan or system of criminal land tenure and taxation legislation. This new final revision became known as the Ottoman laws and would remain intact for the next three centuries to come. Sullyman also made adjustments to laws

30:14 that affected varying religions within the empire, taking a similar approach of tolerance to the one of the late Bea, including but not limited to the formal condemning of blood liels issued against the Jewish population. Simultaneously, as these legislative and cultural shifts transpired within the empire outside of the sovereign borders, buildout continued almost immediately taking aim at the Christian powers in both Europe and the Mediterranean. Sullyman I led his forces to a victory at Belgrad in 1521, followed by the long awaited seizure of roads in 1522.

31:03 Four years later, engaged with the Hungarian troops, the Ottomans not only vanquished their opponent, but also executed King Lewis II of Hungary himself. When Sullyan came across the slain body of the Hungarian monarch, he remarked, "May Allah be merciful to him and punish those who misled his inexperience. I came indeed in arms against him, but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty. This unexpected void in Hungary's authority sparked a new conflict for the throne between the Habsburg Archduke of Austria and the Transylvania voyod. Amidst prevalent opposition to the

31:50 prospect of Habsburg control, the Ottoman Sultan chose to accept Enosh as the new vassal king of Hungary. As an added venture to undermine any subsequent Habsburg meddling, Solomon led another campaign in 1529, this time aimed at Vienna. Unfortunately for the Turks, an outbreak of troubles plagued their offensive and forced the Sultan to call off the feudile advances. Largely undeterred, by 1532, the Ottomans tried yet again to assail Vienna, but made very minimal progress after being stopped by the defending forces at the siege of Gunds. Thus giving Sullyon's belief that Vienna

32:36 was not a prize to be won so easily. A peace agreement was finally reached in Constantinople between Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria and the Ottoman Sultan the following year. The terms of the truce were decided upon by both sides. However, it did not take long for the integrity of the agreement to deteriorate. When Enosh passed away in 1540, any remaining peace between the Ottomans and Austrians seemed to shatter altogether. Throughout a series of campaigns and annexations in 1541 through 1543, Hungary was eventually split into three individual Hungaries. On one side sat

33:21 the Habsburg Hungary which was adjacent to the Ottoman vassal state of Transylvania and neighboring the indefinitely garrisoned Ottoman Hungary. The succeeding 19 years marked a vigorous on andoff war within the region forcing a long bout of peace negotiations in 1562. All the while, as the discord between the Christian and Muslim sides played out in one continent, the Ottomans were also facing hostility over in the Middle East. Back in 1534, Solomon launched the first of the three repetitive campaigns against the Persian opposition. The Ottomans would continue to push back against the Sha and his forces, participating in a prolonged chess game

34:07 of territory exchange until the final incursion ended with a peace treaty in 1544, securing various important gains for the Ottoman side. During this time, the Ottoman naval might began to flourish under Admiral Ker Alin, taking on European Allied forces near the coasts of Greece with great success. The range of the Turks naval influence could be felt as far as the Indian Ocean where they came in direct competition with the Portuguese ascendancy. In addition, Solomon's reign also expanded the scope of the Ottoman impact to North Africa and the Mughal Empire. Rounding out a long and prosperous period of development and consolidation,

34:55 though not without the occasional shortcoming, Solomon spent his final months at the siege of Siegebar, which resulted in a taxing victory for the Ottomans, losing tens of thousands of men in the process, as well as their Sultan. With his brothers having died or been executed previously, Sim II became the new leader of the Ottoman Empire in 1566. The first of many who would fall into the same pattern. Salim's dominance and true authority was often undercut by the sway of Memed Sakolu, his grand vizier, and the women of his harum, most notably his wife.

35:40 Thoroughly uninterested in a life saturated in politics, the new Sultan chose to leave much of the governing duties in the hands of the Grand Vizier. Nonetheless, Sim's reign was marked by the exchange of war for peace in regions previously contested by his father. The first treaty was signed in 1568, creating a new wave of non-aggression with Austria, mirroring the last ceasefire between the Ottomans and Seafids. While a rebellion in Yemen crept up shortly after, it was quickly subdued. The only main conflicts faced during the period of Salem's rule played out after the capture of Venetian territory of Cyprus in 1570, the same year that a peace treaty with

36:26 Russia under the rule of Ivan the Terrible was reached in Constantinople. Subsequently, due to the aforementioned antagonism in Europe, the battle of Leanto ensued in 1571, which gifted only temporary victory to Venice until the following year. By 1574, the Ottomans had secured both Cyprus and Tunisia before the passing of Sultan Salem II, leaving the empire in the hands of Morad III. In drastic contrast with his father, Morad ruled over a period of both conflict and decline of coherence within the empire. Seizing Fez from the Portuguese in 1578 and then broadening

37:13 his authority in the Persian region, the Sultan eventually launched a new surge of combat with Austria that would last into the following century. During this time, a notable alliance was formed between the Ottoman vassels with the Austrians. Despite the clear breach of terms with the Turkish sarrenty, the period of 1570 until 1590 also marked a relaunch of hostilities with the Safet dynasty. Meanwhile, the state of affairs within the Ottoman borders fared no better. The constant conflicts demanded higher taxes, prompting inflation and a rapid dwindling of the overall permanence inside the empire, even causing a slump in the reliability of the janisary

37:59 troops as only the second sultan following Sim II to never lead his troops into battle and to have his power undermined by the women of his harum. Morad's most impressive accomplishment may have been securing a diplomatic relationship with Queen Elizabeth I of England. Arguing that the Islamic and Protestant worlds had more in common than either did to Roman Catholicism, the Sultan was able to form a trade agreement with the English monarch in 1581, granting priority to England's merchants within Ottoman territory. These foreign relations outlived the Sultan himself, being passed from the hands of Morad III

38:45 to Memed III. As the final Sultan of the 16th century, Memed III took on the growing alliance between his European vassels and Austrian enemy. Initially facing a loss, though quickly bouncing back to defeat the Habsburg and Transanian forces at the Battle of Keshesh in 1596. The end of the 1500s brought only slightly improved luck as a peace agreement was reached between the Ottoman Empire and one of the vassal leaders. Mihi the brave who had found prior success in fighting off the Turkish troops. Sultan Memed III continued to hold the

39:31 Ottoman throne into the 17th century and would reign for another three years to come. The Ottoman Empire in the hands of Sultan Memed III began the 17th century, having made peace with notable challengers such as Michael the Brave, who now ruled over Mulavia and Transylvania, uniting them under one flag. However, conflict still persisted elsewhere. Barely into the 1600s, the Ottomans captured the fortress of Nagi Kanita, having to defend their new hold on the following year at the siege of Nagia against the Habsburg and allied forces. While continuing to participate in the 13-year war against the Habsburg

40:18 monarchy, the Turks were also constrained to engage with repeated revolts that surfaced at the start of the century, adding a third front to the Ottomans current situation. In the fall of 16003, war broke out once again with the Seava dynasty of Persia, making the death of Sultan Memed III that December even heavier a loss for the empire. At only 13 years old, Ahmed I was next to take the title of Sultan following his father's death. Likely due to his age, Sultan Ahmed made an unprecedented decision in favor of sparing the life of his brother Mustafa. Opposing the expected act of fraticside demonstrated

41:03 by his predecessors as a way of avoiding future dissension over the throne, the young sultan chose to keep Mustafa alive, an act which prevented a potential end to the dynasty. given that Ahmed had not yet fathered any children to secede him. Nonetheless, getting right to work, Ahmed focused his attention on the raging Ottoman Seafid war, sending an army from Constantinople in June of6004 to confront their antagonistic foe. Having arrived later than they should have, the Turks failed to prevent the Safets from capturing Yeravan and advancing forward. Some arguably poor decisions on the Ottoman side ensued,

41:50 all but throwing away a year of precious time and opportunity. By605, the war continued to wage on and prompted the Turks under the command of Memed Pasha to form a temporary allegiance with Steven Box Kai, Prince of Transylvania, who had requested assistance from the Ottoman Empire. Still, as a consequence of ongoing struggles from multiple angles, including more revolts in Anatolia, Sultan Ahmed was forced to concede to the Treaty of Sitvo in6006 with Austria, recognizing the Habsburg emperor as his equal and taking an ax to Ottoman expansion in Europe. Pressed even further to extend favorable

42:35 commercial privileges to the Netherlands, France, and Venice, the young Sultan caused a significant blow to the empire's esteem. Forced once again to come to an agreement with a bitter rival near the end of 1612, the Ottomans and Safids signed the Treaty of Nassa Pasha, surrendering all territory gained in the 1578 to 1590 war back to the Persians, resetting the map to that of 1555 after the peace treaty of Amasia. The same year also marked a renewal of nonviolence with France, Venice, and England, as well as a novel trade treaty that was signed with the Dutch Republic. While scrambling to create a wave of

43:21 harmony, Ahmed's attempts to calm the atmosphere within his sovereign borders through new regulations, religious donations, and architecture were mostly overshadowed. After a reign plagued with turmoil, Sultan Ahmed fell ill and passed away in November of 1617, leaving the unsteady empire under the watchful eye of Mustafa I. In an unusual occurrence, the death of the prior Sultan left the throne open to multiple candidates, all of which resided at the Sultan's palace. Due to Ahmed's son's age at the time, a court faction in favor of giving the title to Mustafa overruled the opposition and enthroned the new Sultan. As the first brother to

44:07 become Sultan ahead of their predecessors sons, Mustafa had minimal luck in restabilizing the empire. Often described as having severe mental abnormalities, Mustafa was influenced by his mother, Haleem Sultan, who obtained notable direct power in his place. Nonetheless, after only a short rule, the Sultan was ousted by another court faction, who chose to instead replace him with his nephew, Osman II. Claiming the role in 1618, aged only 14 at the time, Osman II was aware of the desperate need to repair the current state of affairs within the empire. The young sultan first signed the treaty of Sarav with the Safids before personally leading an incursion into Poland, which

44:55 had previously interfered with Ottoman vassal states during the Mulavian magnet wars. Though another treaty was necessitated by the Ottomans loss at the Battle of Choten in 1621, Osman was undeterred from his goal to mend the empire's prestige. Blaming the debased Janisary Corps for what he deemed inadequacy during the previous ventures, the Sultan decided to close their coffee shops and slash their pay as punishment. Osman was unable to follow through on a plan to overhaul his current forces and create a more reliable army before the outraged janiseries rebelled. Sultan Osman II was dethroned, imprisoned, and

45:40 subsequently strangled to death, marking the first Sultan assassination performed by the Janiseries. Taking advantage of his nephew's downfall, Mustafa I regained his throne in 1622, immediately cracking down on all those who were involved in Osman's execution. unable to maintain any level of control in the face of growing tensions between the Janiseries and Zepathi cavalry men as well as a revolt by the governor general of Erzu Rum to avenge Osman. Mustafa's mother ultimately supported a move to oust her son on the condition that he not be killed in the process. Ahmed I's 11-year-old son, Morad IVth, now ascended the throne in September of

46:27 1623. Though his first years as ruler were mostly dominated by his mother and grand vizers, Sultan's reign became a beacon of hope for the restoration of the empire's inner amity. and foreign ine conflict with tenacious ferocity. Morad was known for his heavy-handed brutality and tendency to only loosely follow the overarching Sharia law. [Music] With the Safets now invading more territory to the southeast, the Ottomans focused this ruthless grit back onto the war with the Persians. able to seize Azerbaijan, Tabris and Hamadan, even Baghdad in 1638. The Turks then signed the Treaty of Zahab the

47:12 following year. The siege of Baghdad also brought a notable meeting between Sultan Morad and two ambassadors from the Mgal Empire, exchanging gifts and supplies before sending a handful of Ottoman troops to accompany the Mgalls on their own expedition to Serat. Ironically, having banned alcohol, tobacco, and coffee, Sultan Morad IV eventually succumbed to his own alcohol addiction in 1640, seceding his brother Ibrahim I took the throne and quickly moved to make peace with the Safids and Austria. In stark contrast, by 1645, Sultan Ibrahim had already sparked a war

47:58 with Venice over the island of Cree. Being a fan of extravagance, the new Sultan's rule brought with it an increase in taxes, causing disapproval and resentment within the region. While the Grand Vizier Ka Mustafa Pasha had helped to correct economic deficiencies within the empire before his execution in 1644, not enough had been done, and the burden caused by Ibrahim's expensive intrigues remained. After a previous failed attempt to depose the monarch in favor of one of his own sons, a genisary rebellion led to the capture of the ultimate assassination of Sultan Ibrahim I. Handing the throne over to his

48:44 six-year-old son, Memed IV. Sultan Memed IV, the second longest reigning ruler of the empire, ushered in a period of short-lived improvement, bringing about heightened expansions in Europe, the Ottomans managed successful campaigns against the adversaries such as Venice, Transylvania, Poland, and even Russia. Nevertheless, at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 against the Polish Lithuanian troops and their allies, the Ottomans suffered a devastating defeat which marked merely the beginning of the Great Turkish War against the Holy League. Only a few years later, Sultan Memed and his men faced another crushing blow at the second battle of Mohawk,

49:31 undergoing both a loss to their opponents and a mutiny from within. As a consequence, it was decided in November of 1687 that Sultan Memed IV would be ousted and replaced by his brother Sullivan II. With the mutiny that raised Sullivan II to the throne still carrying on, the Ottomans made a hasty attempt to fight back against the Holy League. Despite losing support of the Creian vassels, who now had to defend themselves against a Russian invasion. Even so, the Turks were able to gain temporary victory as they recaptured Belgrad and Nish in 1690. Despite a request for support being

50:16 denied in 1688 by the Maul Emperor Arange, the Ottomans put a stop to the Austrian invasion of Serbia, as well as a revolt coming from Macedonia and Bulgaria. Solomon's luck remained even after his own passing in June of 1691 until the death of his grand vizier Caprulu Fazil Mustafa Pasha at the battle of Slan Common against the Austrians in 1691. Before his death, the Grand Vizier had helped to establish tax reforms and contribute to the improved treatment of Christians under Ottoman dominion. Having taken the title of Sultan and responsibility of facing their opponents at the battle of Slankin, Ahmed II was immediately met

51:04 with major losses of territory caused by Austrians and Venetians. Over the next few years, the new Sultan was never able to show complete independence of his command and was heavily reliant on his advisers throughout his time dealing with the Holy League and newfound disturbances in the provinces of Levant. After a short and rather mediocre reign, Sultan Ahmed II's death in 1695 at the age of 51 led to Mustafa II, son of Memed IV, being perched to round out the 17th century as Sultan. As the great Turkish war continued, Sultan Mustafa II led the

51:52 empire to both victory and defeat, ending with the signing of two peace treaties in 1699 and 1700. First came the treaty of Carloitz, drastically cutting the Ottoman influence in the Balkans and handing predominant power in the region over to Austria. The following summer, the Treaty of Constantinople was signed between the Ottoman Turks and Russia, confirming Russia's capture of Azov and ending the 17th century hostilities between the powers. With these compromises established, Sultan Mustafa II would remain on the throne for another 3 years to come. The 17th century was different for the Ottomans. If previously we discussed the

52:38 expansion of this important empire between 1600 to 1700, the Ottomans experienced a lot of political turmoil and internal crisis which led to instability and lost wars. From now on, the Ottomans will focus far less on conquests and more on protecting their borders. The 1700s in the Ottoman Empire marked a time of reform, adaptation, and often on war with European powers, most notably Russia. The empire that had previously been focused heavily on outward expansion was now faced with resolving internal issues and defending its possessions

53:24 from new expansionist powers. New allies, new enemies, and new challenges faced the Ottoman sultans over the next century. Going to 1700, Mustafa II held the Ottoman throne. To kick off the 18th century, Sultan Mustafa signed the Treaty of Constantinople on July 13, 1700, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1686 throughout 1700 against Russian Sar Peter the Great. This treaty gave Azov to Russia, but promised 30 years of peace between the empires. Sultan Mustafa was unable to enjoy the harmony

54:10 for long though due to the Edern event in 1703. The event was a result of angered Janisary Core who disproved of Sultan Mustafa's choice to return to Eder not Constantinople after signing the Treaty of Caravitz and Constantinople with the Holy League. Mustafa also left most political and administrative power to Fez Zalah Ephendi who the Janiseries found to be corrupt and overbearing. When the Ottomans decided to intervene in the civil war in Georgia, a unit of Janisary Corps was supposed to be sent to Georgia to give the empire a military presence. In addition to the Janisary's existing displeasure, they were also now intended

54:55 to join this conflict, having not been paid for their proper salaries. Few units began to protest in Constantinople and were quickly joined by civilians and other soldiers. The protest turned to riots and after Fa Zaha Aphendi had the rebels group of representatives arrested, the rioters turned their sights toward Eder. But the janiseries were unsatisfied and as the sultan's own soldiers now joined the protesters arriving in Edern, Mustafa was deposed on August 22nd 1703 and Fasah Ephendi was assassinated. Ahmed III, the brother of Mustafa II, now seized the Ottoman throne and was

55:42 faced with the challenge of subduing the rebellious troops. Constantinople remained in a state of unsettled indignation until the appointment of a new grand vizier, Alip Pasha. Once Sultan Ahmed could focus more on foreign affairs, he began to improve Ottoman relations with both England and France, as well as forming a new alliance with Charles I 12th of Sweden. After the Swedish king's loss to Peter the Great of Russia at the battle of Pava in 1709, Charles sought refuge in the Ottoman court and proceeded to convince Sultan Ahmed to declare war on Russia in 1710. Despite the 1700 Constantinople Treaty,

56:28 which should have meant 30 years of peace, the Ottoman Grand Vizier Memed Pasha led his troops to a decisive victory surrounding Peter the Great's men at the Prut River and forcing the Russians to not only agree to giving up Azov, but they were also required to destroy the fortress of Tagenrog and any other Azovvian forts and refrain from interfering in any Polish or Kasac affairs. Once the Russians were no longer a direct adversary for the time being, Ahmed turned his attention to the Venetians, declaring war on Venice in December of 1714. The Ottomans used a coordinated naval and army effort to seize Moria. The

57:15 following year, word of the Turks victory made its way to Austria and the Austrian Emperor Charles V 6th chose to intervene, kicking off the AustroTurkish War of 1716 through 1718. Prince Eugene's Austria's Habsburg general led his troops to drastic success against the Ottomans, although the war itself began to disrupt Dutch and British Mediterranean trade. In 1718, Great Britain and Holland urged the Ottomans, Venetians, and Austrians into signing the Treaty of Pasa Ravitz, ending the conflict and confirming the Ottomans gain of Moria.

58:00 Unfortunately for Sultan Ahmed, the agreement also forced him to hand over Belgrad, little Valahia and Bernat to Austria, which threw a wrench in his empire's westward expansion. A few years later, in June of 1724, the Russo Ottoman Treaty was concluded, which was intended to partition their shared neighbor of Safid Iran. But the Ottomans were essentially chased out of the region by 1730. Potentially fueled by this failure, in addition to anger toward the Sultan's excessive indulgence and overly lavish lifestyle in a time of economic struggle, a genisary mutiny broke out again led by Patrona Halil. Sultan Ahmed

58:48 III was subsequently deposed and replaced on the throne by his nephew Mamem I. One of the many sultans to do so, Mamem was forced to first calm the boiling tensions in his empire after his uncle's overthrow. After roughly a year, Sultan Mamemed was able to end the rebellion with the execution of Halil and a large portion of his supporters. During his reign, Mhm became stuck in an on andoff war with Persia, which brought about no real conclusion whilst also being faced with more discord in Europe beginning in 1735. The new Russo Turkish war began after

59:34 Russia decided to sign the Treaty of Ganja with Iran, creating an alliance against the offensive Ottomans. The Russians now turned toward Crimea, which they continuously sieged, burning palaces and fortifications as they pushed deeper into the peninsula. They finally reached Azovv, where they captured the Ottomans fortress there. Although Russian goals were aggressive, all sides of the conflict were essentially subdued by a plague outbreak throughout 1737 to 1739. Still, Austria attempted to join the war against the Turks during 1737, but they faced repeated defeats at the

1:00:19 hands of the Ottomans and eventually lost Belgra after an incursion in the late summer of 1739. All three empires made negotiation efforts partway through the war, but no progress was made diplomatically. Russia continued to drive deeper into Ottoman territory through 1739 despite the fact that the Austrians seemed to have had enough. The same year, the Treaty of Belgrad was signed, ending the Austro-Turkish War and giving the Ottomans the Kingdom of Serbia, part of Bennett, as well as handing over Alteneia over to the Ottoman vassel of Valahia. Russia was eventually forced to sign the

1:01:05 Treaty of Nish roughly a month later which ended their war with the Turks while allowing them to keep control of Azov. 6 years after peace was made with his European opponents, Sultan Mhhammmed died of natural causes and was succeeded by Osman III. Osman, son of Mustafa II, spent 51 years in captivity. After his father's deposition and seemed to have developed some behavioral issues as a consequence, potentially due to his unusual mind, Osman was not responsible for many significant changes or events in the Empire's history. One of the peculiar modifications made

1:01:51 during his reign was the banning of all music and musicians from his palace. Nonetheless, a more important action taken by Sultan Osman III was the declaration of the Ferman in 1757 that preserved the division of responsibilities for various holy land sites between Christians, Jews, and Muslims. That same year, on October 30th, Osman passed away, leaving the Ottoman throne open to Mustafa III. Mustafa III was determined to create more solidity within the empire. He focused initially on issues with coinage, aqueducts, and other internal affairs,

1:02:37 as well as spending a decent amount of time traveling to ensure that his laws were being enforced throughout his territory. Externally, Mustafa was determined to maintain peace with Europe. Despite pressure from Frederick the Great of Prussia to become more involved in European affairs, the Ottomans put great effort into remaining peaceful until war with Russia became inevitable once again. Russia's overbearing attitude toward Poland and Cremia became too much for the Ottomans and another Russo-Turkish conflict erupted in 1768. The war was an embarrassing defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which was forced to give up territory, reparations, and

1:03:23 allow the Russians to be protectors of Orthodox Christianity in the Ottoman vassal states of Valahia and Mulavia in 1774. Although a treaty was signed in July, Sultan Mustafa III had actually died of a heart attack in January of 1774, which meant that the war was resolved under the reign of Abdul Hamid I. One of Sultan Abdul Hamid's priorities was to reform the genisary corps and all of the Ottoman armed forces, which he did. He is also credited with the establishment of the Imperial Naval Engineering School. Hamid further

1:04:08 concentrated significant efforts on strengthening his grip over Syria, Egypt, and Iraq. While Russia was not one of Sultan Hamid's preferred focuses, he eventually was pushed back into war with the recurrent adversary in 1787 after Russia consistently abused their power as Orthodox Christianity's protector. The Turks were able to stand their ground fairly well at the start. But with Austria backing Russia, Hamid's troops began to struggle. said to have been morally defeated by the ongoing war. Sultan Abdul Hamid died in April of 1789. Saleem III took over the Ottoman throne

1:04:54 and the continuing war with Russia. Shortly into his reign, Sultan Salee agreed to end yet again the Russo Turkish War despite having to accept the ultimate success of the Russians. Once the foreign conflict was settled, Salem set up a committee of reformers and series of reforms relating to taxation, land tenure, and provincial governorships. In addition to continuing the military reforms of his predecessor, Salem also opened Ottoman embassies throughout the European capitals in order to create better relations with the West. To round out the century, the Ottoman Empire was faced with an unexpected plot twist as Napoleon invaded Egypt.

1:05:41 Sultan Salem was forced to declare war on France and unexpectedly form an alliance with Great Britain and Russia. This new conflict would continue into the next century, marking yet another era of increasing change for the Ottoman Empire. The 19th century in the Ottoman Empire pushed the Turks into a position of desperate defensiveness and required the centuries old conquering power to make alliances with unexpected nations in order to prevent collapse. Without a doubt, the 1800s marked a rapid decline for the Ottoman Empire and threw challenge after challenge at each sultan who would take the throne over

1:06:28 the next 100 years. Going into the new century, Salem III was still the Sultan of the Empire. Recently, Napoleon and his French troops had taken power in Egypt and styled themselves as the liberators of Egypt from the Ottoman Empire. Although, constant revolts and discord back home in France forced Napoleon to make a subtle retreat before causing too much damage to the Ottomans. By 1801, the French officially pulled out of the territory, allowing Salem a sigh of relief, although the Ottoman Sultan actually had a strong respect for Napoleon himself. In 1804, France began attempting to win over Salem's support, whilst Russia wanted to keep the

1:07:15 Ottomans leaning to their side. Napoleon himself even wrote to Sultan Salem referring to him as most high and invincible prince, the great emperor of the Muslims and imploring him to explain why he would let the Russians influence his decision. The Frenchman also noted that he himself recognized the title of emperor for Salem, so the sultan should do the same for him in return. He lastly notes that the Russians have 15,000 men at Corfu, pointing out that those troops surely were there to oppose the Turks and not the French. Salem truly wished to grant Napoleon the favor, but was too intimidated by the military might of the Russian British alliance that faced the

1:08:02 French. The Ottomans ultimately agreed to maintain a defensive alliance with Russia until 1806, at which point war broke out between the empires once again. The Russians were outraged by Sem's decision to depose his vassal states, Russoile governors in Mulavia and Wahia. Meanwhile, within the empire, Sem was faced with rebellion from his janisary and Yamak troops due to his new reformist policies. The Sultan was eventually ousted from the throne and put into prison in 1807. Mustafa IV was assigned as Sem's successor. An attempt was made by reformist supporters to reinstate Salem as Sultan,

1:08:49 but Mustafa ordered his assassination before anything could be done. The new Sultan's endeavors to undo his predecessors reforms were cut short by Salem III's brother, Mahmud II, whose supporters quickly deposed Mustafa in July of 1808 and crowned Mhammmed in his place. Sultan Mhhammmed II wished to continue the westernization reforms of his brother, but was first faced with more pressing matters. The war with Russia was only ended in 1812 with the treaty of Bucharest and the Ottomans were forced to give Besserabia or eastern part of Muldova over to the Russians after facing demoralizing losses. The Serbian fight

1:09:36 for autonomy shook the Balkans in 1815 and the Greeks were moving in the same direction themselves. In 1821, Greeks in the Moria revolted against Ottoman sovereignty, triggering the start of their war for independence. Also, a Romanian uprising existed at the same time. Sultan Mhhammmed initially called on the governor of Egypt for help and the Ottomans were temporarily able to regain control until an alliance of Britain, France and Russia rooted the Ottoman Egyptian coalition at the Bay of Navarino in October of 1827. Mamemmed reacted by declaring war on Russia as the dispute with Greece continued. Another RussoTurkish war

1:10:24 waged on from 1828 through 1829 and the following year the Ottoman Empire was forced to acknowledge Greek independence. In 1831 the governor of Egypt Muhammad Ali Pasha confronted Sultan Mahmud about a promise that had been made to him earlier in which Mamem agreed to make Ali the governor of Syria and Tarsus. Muhammad refused to follow through and Ali reacted by sending troops under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha to seize Damascus, Aleppo and COA and then marched towards Constantinople. Sultan Mhhammmed who had stunningly sacked the entire genisary corps back in 1826

1:11:10 now had to seek aid from foreign powers. He first appealed to the British who declined due to France's support of the Egyptians. Mamemmed then turned to Russia who agreed to an alliance. Still, the Egyptians routed the Ottoman forces at Nisip in June 1839 around the same time that Sultan Mamemmed began the Tanzamat reform era, which brought about a more modernized and European inspired Turkey. Before he was able to see the results of these changes though, Mhammmed II died of tuberculosis in the summer of 1839. Abdul Mased I replaced Mhammmed as the new Sultan and continued the increasing

1:11:56 reforms within the empire. The year after the new young sultan took the throne, the oriental crisis of 1840 occurred during the ongoing Egyptian Ottoman War and the entirety of the Ottoman naval forces defected to Muhammad Ali and the Egyptian cause. France was ready to back the Egyptians, but Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia came to the Ottoman Sultan's aid. The European powers then established the convention of London in July of 1840, promising the Egyptians territory in Sudan, Egypt under the condition that those lands remain a part of the Ottoman Empire, though mostly as a formality. Muhammad Ali was hesitant

1:12:43 to accept the deal and turned to the French for support against it. But his once allies now switched sides in October of that year, triggering a military response against the Egyptians from the Ottomans and Europeans. Finally, Muhammad Ali agreed to his opponent's terms in November, giving up Syria, Adana, Cree, the Hijaz, and the Holy Land. In addition to handing the Ottoman naval forces back over to Sultan Abdul Mased in 1853 the Ottoman Empire entered the Crimean War. Yet another conflict with Russia. One of the main factors leading to the discord was further disputes surrounding

1:13:29 the Russians role as protectors of Orthodox Christianity in Ottoman vassal states. Britain and France quickly backed the Turks, fearing the growing power of the Russians. Meanwhile, Austria aligned once again with Russia. Eventually, though, Austria threatened to switch sides and back the Ottoman cause, forcing Russia to accept peace terms, resulting in the Treaty of Paris on March 30th, 1856. Just before the conclusion of the war, Sultan Abdul Mased issued the Hati Humayan, which established that all classes and ethnicities would be treated equally in all matters within the empire. In 1861, the Ottoman Sultan was

1:14:16 pressured by the European powers into recognizing Lebanese autonomy and died shortly after from tuberculosis. Abdul Aziz became the next Sultan of the Ottoman Empire after the death of his brother. Sultan Abdul Aziz continued the reforms and westernization of Abdul Masid, taking significant advice from France on the establishment of a council of state and public education system. The empire's first civil code was also promulgated during his reign. As tensions and rebellions rose in the Balkans, the Ottomans once again became unsatisfied with Russia. This time due to its support of the revolts from the

1:15:01 Balkan states. The Russoturkish war of 1877 to 1878 broke out with Russia leading a coalition of Romanian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Montenegran troops. The conflict proved disastrous for the Ottoman Empire, ending in a decisive victory for Russia and its allies. The formal declaration of independence from Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, the establishment of the principality of Bulgaria, AustriaHungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzagavnia, and Britain's seizure of Cyprus. All confirmed by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Furthermore, just before the main portion of the war had erupted, Sultan

1:15:47 Abdul Aziz had actually been dethroned by his own ministers due to a plethora of frustrations within the empire. This meant that Sultan Abdul Hamid II would be responsible for handling the resolution of the Balkan unrest. Initially, Morad V had taken the throne in Abdul Aziz's place, but he was deposed after 93 days due to accusations that he was mentally ill and unfit for the job. One of Sultan Abdul Hamid's initial actions was to promulgate the first Ottoman constitution in 1876, although it only lasted for 2 years before the Sultan suspended it in 1878.

1:16:34 Over the next few years, France extended their reach into Tunisia and Britain came to power in Egypt in 1882, prompting the Ottomans to look toward Germany for friendship, around which time the Greco Turkish War was sparked in 1897 by the disagreement between the Ottomans and Greeks as to whether Cree should remain under the Ottoman Empire or unite with Greece, Germany, Austria, Hungary France Italy Russia and Britain all backed the Ottomans and wished to maintain peace in Cree. The war was short-lived and a defeat for Greece, which was forced to pay heavy reparations and allow Cree to remain an

1:17:19 autonomous state under Ottoman Suzy. Though Sultan Abdul Hamid II and his forces were undeniably victorious against the Greeks and Cree, the issue would continue into the next century. Additionally, unrest in the Balkans was far from over as the 1800s came to a close. Problems with Armenia and its neighbors began in the 1890s and only grew with time as the Ottoman Empire was pushed more and more in the direction of urgent defense over its dwindling power and territory. A fall from grace that would only get worse in the years to come.

1:18:04 The 20th century for the Ottoman Empire was marked, or more accurately, scarred by one thing, collapse. Turkeykey's conquering power from the past 600 years would finally come to a humiliating end with the whole world watching. The sick man of Europe would be unable to overcome the devastation brought by the Balkans wars and events to follow. The first domino to fall was actually prior to the Balkan Wars and is known as the Young Turk Revolution. The Young Turks alongside other reformist groups making up the Committee of Union and Progress

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