Brief Summary
This video is a marathon session on ancient Indian history, covering key topics relevant to exams. It begins with an overview of prehistoric culture, including the age of the earth and the evolution of humans through different geological epochs. It then transitions into the Indus Valley Civilization, discussing its extent, city planning, and important sites. The session also covers the Vedic Civilization, focusing on the Aryan invasion theory, the four Vedas, and various aspects of Vedic society. Finally, it touches upon the rise of Mahajanapadas, Buddhism, Jainism, the Mauryan Empire, and brief introductions to the Shungas, Kanvas, Sangam Age, Gupta Empire and Pushyabhuti dynasty.
- Prehistoric culture and human evolution
- Indus Valley Civilization: extent, city planning, and key sites
- Vedic Civilization: Aryan invasion theory, Vedas, and society
- Mahajanapadas, Buddhism, and Jainism
- Mauryan Empire and its administration
- Brief overviews of subsequent dynasties and empires
Introduction
The session will cover ancient Indian history, medieval Indian history, and modern Indian history, focusing on important topics relevant to exams. The presenter has previously covered major parts of ancient India in full-length videos available on the Study IQ English website and YouTube channel. The ancient Indian history session will be approximately 9 to 10 hours long, covering prehistoric culture, Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic Civilization, Mahajanapadas, Buddhism and Jainism, Mauryas, Sangam Age, Gupta Empire, and the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Viewers are advised to have a pen and paper to note important points and a political map to mark important sites.
Prehistoric Culture
The age of the earth is estimated based on the age of the Himalayas (youngest fold mountains, 70 million years old) and the Aravalli Range (oldest fold mountain, 4.2 billion years old). The evolution of humans is believed to have started around 23 to 24 million BC and can be divided into three stages: Meioscene, Piocene, and Plytoscene. During the Meioscene age (23-24 million BC to 5 million BC), humans appeared as apes walking on four legs, with a moderately warm temperature and slow global cooling. In the Piocene age (5 million to 2 million BC), Homo erectus appeared, with a straighter backbone, and continental drifting occurred. The Plytoscene age, also known as the Ice Age, saw the emergence of Homo sapiens, who started using their brains for different activities, discovered fire, and used stone tools.
Stages of Plytoscene Age
The Plytoscene age is divided into four parts: Paleolithic, Misolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic. The term "lithic" means stone, hence this age is also known as the Stone Age. The Paleolithic age extends from 2 million to 10,000 BC, the Misolithic age from 10,000 to 8,000 BC, the Neolithic age from 8,000 to 4,000 BC, and the Chalcolithic age from 4,000 to 2,000 or 2,500 BC. The Paleolithic age is further divided into lower, middle, and upper stages. The lower Paleolithic age saw the development of stone tools like hand axes, cleavers, choppers, and diggers. The middle Paleolithic age saw the development of flakes for sharpening tools. The upper Paleolithic age saw the development of bereines for fishing and the emergence of paintings, with evidence from the Bimbetka caves in Ryen district of Madhya Pradesh.
Paleolithic Age Sites
Important sites associated with the lower Paleolithic age include Hungasi in Gulberg district of Karnataka, Suhan Valley in Punjab (Pakistan), Han Valley in Gujarat, Balan Valley in Mirapur district of Uttar Pradesh, Tar in Rajasthan, and Pelgam in Kashmir. Middle Paleolithic sites include Narada river valley, Tongabadra river valley, Tanga caves in Pakistan, Portoar plateau in Pakistan, Purulia in Bankura (West Bengal), and Mal Prabha and Gut Prabha in Karnataka. The upper Paleolithic site is Ryen district in Madhya Pradesh, specifically the Bimbetka caves. Other sites include Kiban Hali in Karnataka, Palakar site in Kerala, Atari Pakam in Tamil Nadu (where Aulian tools were found), Dari Dongri in Sambalpur district of Odisha, Pasra in Bihar, Dirwana in Rajasthan, and Daraki Chhatan on Indraar hills in Mansour district of Madhya Pradesh.
Misolithic Age
The Misolithic age, also called the Middle Stone Age, saw the first observation of microlith pointed tools (2 to 5 cm), made of agitate jasper quadzite. Most tools were made of quadzite, and the stone age men of that time were referred to as quadzite men. The evidence of microlith comes from Bagor in Rajasthan on the banks of river Kotari. Animal domestication was observed for the first time, with the first animal domesticated being a wild dog. The evidence of domestication comes from Adam in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. Bone ornaments were observed for the first time from Mahadaha and Sarai Nharay in Prattab district of UP. Hornmade implements were observed from dum dama in Mesa Til of Allahabad (Prayagraj). Painting became polychrome, using multiple colors.
Misolithic Age Sites and Neolithic Age
Other important sites associated with the Misolithic age include Loteshwar and Tarang in Gujarat, Tilvada in Rajasthan, and Bed in Jarant and Gambharia in Udisha. In the Neolithic age, people started living a sedentary life in plain areas due to the fertile sediments deposited by rivers, which were conducive for agriculture. The most advanced agricultural site was Mehar, located in the Baluchistan region of Pakistan, where people lived in mud brick houses. Pottery developed for cooking, eating, drinking, and storing food grains, with evidence from Chopani Mando in UP. At Bouruh in Kashmir, the master and the dog were buried in the same grave, and people lived inside pits near the lakeside.
Neolithic Age Sites and Chalcolithic Age
Other important sites related to the Neolithic age are Musk and Brahmagiri in Karnataka, Payali in Tamil Nadu, Gak and Kiari in Ladak, Napik in Manipur, Kuchai and Golbasan in Udisha, and Mundiak in Afghanistan. Sutaru and Daojali Hading in Assam, and Sangan Kalu in Karnataka. The Paleolithic age is defined by the development of stone tools, the Misolithic age by the domestication of animals, and the Neolithic age by the development of agriculture. In the Chalcolithic age, copper was the first metal discovered by man, but people continued using stone, hence the age is also referred to as the Stone Copper Phase. Majority of the Chalcolithic sites are found in the Jorway region of Maharashtra, Aar and Gillund region of Rajasthan, and Malva and Iran region of Madhya Pradesh.
Chalcolithic Age Facts and IVC Introduction
People of the Chalcolithic age might have worshiped Sakumbri, the goddess of fertility. Robert Bruce Foot is referred to as the father of Indian prehistory. The term Neolithic was coined by John Lubok, and the term Neolithic revolution was coined by Gordon Child. Around the 5th to 4th millennium BC, there were four civilizations contemporary to each other, all developed on the banks of rivers: Indus Valley Civilization (Indus River), Mesopotamian Civilization (Tigris and Euphrates), Egyptian Civilization (Nile), and Chinese Civilization (Wango or Yellow River).
Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese Civilizations
The Mesopotamian civilization developed around the central Asian region, dominated by Sumerianss and Accordians, and was located on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamians were the first to develop spoken language, religion, and sports like polo, and one of the finest examples of sculpture is the guinol liner statue. The Egyptian civilization is located on the banks of the longest river of the world, the Nile, and is considered a gift to Egypt. Egyptian civilization followed elaborate burial practices like pyramids and sphinx. The Chinese civilization is located in China on the banks of the Wango or Yellow River, with fertile soil referred to as Lois.
Indus Valley Civilization Extent and City Structure
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) covered approximately 850,000 square kilometers of the Indian subcontinent. The northernmost site is Manda in Jammu and Kashmir, with some historians believing Shortugai in Afghanistan is the northernmost site. The southernmost site is Daimabad in Maharashtra, the easternmost site is Alamirpur on the banks of river Hindan near Merit and Gazyabad, and the westernmost site is Sutka Gandor on the banks of river Dasht on the Pakistan-Iran border. The IVC city is roughly divided into two parts: the upper sitadel or upper town and the lower citadel or lower town. The sitadel is a wall-like structure that protects the city from flooding.
Indus Valley Civilization City Layout and Great Bath
The upper sitadel was divided into eastern (residential sector) and western (public works sector) parts. Two rows of six granaries have been found at the site of Harpa, with the structure divided into the agricultural field, working floor, granary, and barak (housing for laborers). The city is divided into rectangular blocks like a chess board, with broader main roads and narrower side lanes cutting the main roads at 90°. Lamp posts at equal distances suggest trade routes. Houses are in the side lanes, with entrance doors not directly on the main road. Wells are located between two houses in the lower sitadel and within the courtyard in the upper citadel. Houses are made of wood and burnt bricks, possibly multi-story with staircases. There is vertical and horizontal drainage covered by stone slabs, and manholes at equal distances on the main road. The Great Bath structure at Mojadaru has two entrances, an inlet, and an outlet, made of burnt bricks, with cubicle columns (changing rooms), and might be associated with ritualistic practices.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
Charles Mason, whose actual name was James Levice, was the first to discover the Harapan civilization. Harapa was discovered in 1921 and is located on the banks of the river Ravi. Key findings include the Natraj bronze image, copper scale, vanity box, dice, and R and H37 symmetry. People might have believed in symbolic worship, particularly phallic and yonic worship. Moan judaro was discovered in 1922 by rakala's banner gene and is located on the banks of the river Indis. Key findings include a multi-pillared assembly hall, bronze image of a nude dancing girl, statite image of a bearded man, and seal of Pashupati Mahadev or Protoshiva.
Dholavira and Lothal
Dhavira is located in Gujarat and is divided into three parts: upper town, middle town, and lower town. Water conservation has been observed for the first time, and the Tropic of Cancer passes through the site. Iranian seals suggest trading contacts with Mesopotamian civilization. Lothal is also referred to as the Manchester of Indus Valley Civilization and has the first artificial brick dockyard. Iranian seals suggest trading contacts, and the town is divided into six parts made on unripe bricks. A vase or jar depicting a crow and a fox has been found.
Surotaa, Kali Bangan and Other IVC Sites
Surotaa, a site in Gujarat, has remains of horse bones and oval graves. The Indus Valley Civilization is not horse-centered. Kali Bangan, located in Rajasthan, exhibits protoharapan and Harapan cultural phases. Fire altars have been observed, and fields were plowed before sewing seeds. Camel bones have been observed, and there are wooden slabs instead of stone slabs. Raki Guri in Hiana is the largest Indus Valley Civilization site, while Allah Hindu in Pakistan is the smallest. Sutka Gandor, located on the Pakistan-Iran border, has a copper axe and ashful pot, suggesting a fractional burial system. Daimabad in Maharashtra has a bronze buffalo statue. Alamirpur, located on the banks of river Hinden in UP, has a cloth impression on a trow. Banavali in Hiana has fine quality barley. Mitatal in Hiana is located on the banks of Yamuna and Changang river. Hulas is located in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. Shortugai in Afghanistan is considered by many historians as the northernmost site. Soli is located in Bhagat region of Uttar Pradesh, and Roper or Rupagar is located in Punjab region.
IVC Society, Religion, Agriculture and Seals
The religion of the Indus Valley Civilization was polytheistic and secular, with evidence of the statue of Bull and mother goddess (Saptamatria) at Kot DG in Pakistan, the seal of Pashupati Mahadev or Protoshiva, and symbolic worship of trees, animals, snakes, and birds. People wore seals as amulets to ward off evils and believed in animism. Agriculture was highly developed, with evidence of great granaries, irrigation practices, and plowed fields. They cultivated multiple crops like wheat, barley, and rice, and practiced mixed farming. Camel was domesticated in Kali Bangan, and bull was used for agriculture. There is no evidence of cow on Indus Valley seals. Seals were of different shapes, with inscriptions and carvings, and depicted animals like tiger, elephant, rannosaurus, deer, bull, buffalo, humpless bull, and unicorn.
IVC Script, Pottery and Decline
The script of the Indus Valley Civilization was referred to as boostedon, and their language was pictographic. The script still stands undeifered. Pottery was ochre-colored, well-baked, and utilitarian, with glazed and perforated pottery. Different historians have different opinions about the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, including destruction by floods, change in the course of the river, earthquake, fire, and diseases. One of the widely accepted theories is the Arian invasion theory or Max Mueller theory, which is a disputed topic today.
Vedic Civilization: Aryan Invasion Theory
The session transitions to the Vedic Civilization, starting with the Aryan invasion theory. The word Arian is derived from the Sanskrit word Arya, meaning of noble origin. The term arinds is mentioned 36 times in the rigidic hinds. It is believed that certain tribes from central Asia entered the northern part of India through hyberpass, located in Hindu Kush mountains, and started subjugating the natives of India. The people who came from central Asia and settled in the northern part of India were referred to as arans, while the people who settled in the southern part of India were referred to as Dravidians. There have been dissenting opinions about where the arians came from, with different scholars suggesting Tibet, the Arctic, or Central Asia. The theory that Arians came from Central Asia or are Indo-Uropeans was given by Max Mueller and is referred to as the Arian invasion theory or Max Mueller theory.
The Four Vedas: Rigid
Information about the arians comes from different Vedas, derived from the Sanskrit word vidya, meaning knowledge. The rigid is composed of 10 books or 10 mundals and has 1028 hims and 10,552 mantras. Mundal one and mundle 10 speak about the origin of the universe. In mandal 10 of the rigid, there is a section called purusha sukta, which mentions that every human being is born out of different body parts of Brahma. Mundal 227 are called family books and are the oldest mundles. The famous Gaitri mantra was composed by sage vishwa mitra and finds mention in mundal three of riued. Maximum number of heims are dedicated to Indra (250 heims), the second most important deity is Agni (200 heims), and the third most important deity is S (120 heims). There are two major Brahmans associated with Rigid: Atria Brahman and Koski Brahman.
The Four Vedas: Sam, Yajur and Atarbave
The origin of Indian music can be traced back to Sam V. The musical instrument vina finds mention for the first time in suede. The process for recitation of the mantra is referred to as toma, and the process of sto is further divided into four parts: prstamna, pratihar, upadra, and nidhan. Stob basically means repeatation of the certain part of the mantra. The brahmanas associated with sam are punchuish, taduish, jinya, tandem, maha, and talvakar. The priests associated with sam are referred to as udgatri. Yajuru is divided into two parts: Krishna and Shukla. Krishna is also referred to as black yajurvid, and shuklia is also referred to as white yajurvid. Different yagnas mentioned in Yajur include Ashwamed yagna, rajuya yagna, and vajaya yagna. The brahmanas that are associated with yajuru are tetraa, maitrani, and satapata brahman. Atarvavid is referred to as angira and comprises of 20 books. It mentions about different diseases and its cures. Our national moto is saty nandam truth alone triumphs and not the falsehood have been taken from mundaka which has been derived from atarv. The brahman associated with atarvid is gopat brahar. The term go appears for 176 times in rigidic himmes, and the term ashwa appears for 315 times in rigidic himmes.
Arendikas and Oponyishads
Arikas are forest books, also referred to as book of secrets, and are explained in opishads by a guru. As per jabal opishad, there are four stages of life: brahmachara, griast ashram, onea asham, and syas ashram. The word opishad is derived from the two words op plus sud, meaning sitting near the guru's feet to acquire knowledge. There are totally 108 opishad, among them 11 are the most important ones. The central theme of all the opishad is soul or atman. Chandi yogishad and brihad arunika opanishad are the oldest ones. The concept of karma doctrine finds mention for the first time in brihadaranaka. The concept of tatuamasi finds mention in Chandi Yogishad. Ainsa or nonviolence finds mention in chandi yogad. The four ashrams of life are mentioned in Jabalupad. A dialogue between 13year-old boy Nachiket and Yam god of death finds mention in kata opanishad. Our national moto saty nandam truth alone triumphs and not the falsehood finds mention in munda which is derived from. Manduki opishad is a shortest oponyishad among all the opishads. The concept of par vidya and apar vidya finds mention in mktika opanishad. Mughal prince Dharashiko translated more than 50 opishads into Persian language, and the title was sir a Akbar.
Vedang and Types of Marriages
Vedang are the limb of Vedas, including Sikshia (correct pronunciation of the mantras), Vakran (correct grammar), Nir (ethmology), Chund (vic metrics), Jotish (the planetary movements), and Kulp (vic rituals). The first book on sa was prati saki sutra, and the first book on gvakran was ashtadhai composed by panini. There are 16 process that everyone has to go through from birth to death, referred to as sash karmmas or solah sanscars. As per Vic shastras, there are eight different kind of marriages, but the Vic shastras have sanctioned only five different kind of marriages: Brahma viva marriage along with dowi, Praapat viva marriage without dowi, Da viva marriage of a girl to a boy particularly who is a priest or who a scholar, Da viva arava, gandharva viva a sort of swamva or love marriage. These eight forms of marriages have been classified under two categories: Anulom and Pratilom. In Anulom, the groom is of higher cast, and the bride might be of a higher cast or the lower cast. In Pratilom, the bride is of higher cast, and the groom might be of the same cast or the lower cast.
Early and Later Vedic Society
In the early Vic period, Sati system and child marriage were absent. Women were active participants in decision-m process. Cast system was prevalent but not rigidly followed. In the later Vic period, Kati system and child marriage became prevalent. Women were not the active participants in decision-m process. Sabha and samiti lost its importance. Cast system became more rigid. Women could not inherit property or get education, and women in sudras were denied education. During the early vic period, the king was just a king in the name and had to completely recon to the advice of Sabha, Samiti, Gan, and Vidhhata. The basic unit of life was family and family was referred as kul which was headed by kulpati. But in the later vic period, the entire northern part of India became battleground for 16 great kingdoms referred to as Mahajanpad. In early Vic period, the most important form of wealth was cattle, and such a person was referred to as goat. But in later Vic period, land became one of the most important source of property.
Vedic Religion and Terminologies
In the early Vic period, the majority of the gods were nature gods. There was no evidence of temple worship or idol worship. In the later Vic period, there was more importance on sacrificial rights and rituals than on prayers. There were gods like praaprati Brahma Vishnu Rdra. Important terminologies include: King was referred to as Rajan, Purohit was chief priest, udgatri were the priests associated with Samid, Hot were the priests associated with rigid, Graini was the head of the village, rice was referred to as ashhat tandul or vhi, wheat was referred to as god dum, barley was referred to as ya, sugar cane was referred asu, Ayas was copper, Shamayas or Krishna Ayas was iron, Nishak was gold coin, and Nishak grieve was gold ornaments.
Mahajanapadas: Anga and Wats
The session transitions to the Mahajanapadas, with the northern part of India becoming the battleground for 16 great kingdoms. Among 16 Mahajanpad, 15 are located in the northern part of India, whereas one Mahajanpad is located in the southern part of India, that is Ashmak Mahajanpad. Anga Mahajanpad is located on the borders of Bihar and West Bengal, with its capital at Champa or Malini. The traders of Anga Mahajjanpad had trading contacts with the traders of Swarnabhumi (Thailand). Wats Mahajanpad is located in the eastern part of UP, with its capital at Kosami, and was an offshoot of Kuru Mahajanpad. The most important ruler of Wats Mahajanpad was Udayan.
Mahajanapadas: Kashi, Kosla and Mala
Kashi is located in the eastern part of UP, with its capital at Vanasi. Kosla is located in the eastern part of UP, with its capital at Shraasti and Kushawati. Prasanjit married his sister Kosla Dvi to Bimbisar, the ruler of Hariana dynasty of Magad. Mala Mahajanpad is located in the eastern part of UP, with its capital at Kushagar or Pawa. Buddha attained Mahaparin in the kingdom of Mala.
Mahajanapadas: Chedi, Kuru and Panchchal
Chedi Mahajanpad is located in the Bundelkhand region of MP, with its capital at Sukti Mati or Shitwati. The most important ruler of this Mahajanpad was Shishu Pal. Kuru Mahajjanpad is located in the region of Hariana and covers certain parts of Delhi, with its capital at Hustanapur. The genesis of the Kuru Mahajanpad dates back to Das Rajan battle. Panchchal Mahajanpad is located in Pashi Mananchchal, also referred to as Western UP. The capital of Panchchal is Aishhatran Campilia, because the kingdom of Panchchal is divided into two parts: Uttar Panchchal and Dakshin Panchchal. Uttar Panchchal has its capital at Aichi Chhatra, whereas Dakshin Panchchal has its capital at Campilia.
Mahajanapadas: Surin, Aanti and Waji
Surin Mahajanpad is located in the western part of UP, with its capital at Matura. Vasuv Shri Krishna was one of the most important rulers of this place. Aanti Mahajanpad is located in the western part of Madhya Pradesh, referred to as Malwa, with its capital at Ujan and Maheshmati. The most important ruler of this Mahajanpad was Chundaphy. Waji Mahajanpad is located in the region of Bihar, with its capital at Vashali. Waji Mahajanpad is also referred to as Ashtakul.
Mahajanapadas: Matsya, Asmak, Gandhar and Camboj
Matsya Mahajjanpad is located in Rajasthan, with its capital at Virat Nagar. Asmak is the only Mahajanpad to be located in south, in the region of Maharashtra on the banks of river Godavari, with its capital at Python Pratishtan or Potana. Gandhar Mahajanpad covers certain parts of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, with its capital at Takshasila. Camboj Mahajanpad is located on the foothills of Hindu Kush mountains, particularly in the region of Kashmir, with its capital at Rajpur.
Magad Dynasties: Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda
There were three important dynasties of Magut which ruled the region of Magut consecutively one after the other: Haranka dynasty, Shishunag dynasty, and Nanda dynasty. The founder of Harrianka dynasty was Bimbisar, also referred to as Shrainia or Shrenik. Bimbisar was being killed by his own son Ajat Shatru, whose original name was Kunik. Ajat Shatru is credited with creation or invention of two important weapons: Mahashil Kuck and Rat Musul. Udin is credited with creation of the city of Partiputra. The founder of Shishunag dynasty was Shishunag himself. Kalashoke is also referred to as Kaka Wana. The last ruler of Shishunak dynasty was Maha Nandina.
Buddhism: Story of Buddha
The session transitions to Buddhism, starting with the story of Buddha. Buddha's original name was Sadhart, meaning one who achieves his aim irrespective of the circumstances. His father was Sudhodan, the head of Saki clan, and his mother was Mahamaya. At the age of 29, he observed four things which drastically changed his life: an old man bent with age, a sick man groaning with pain, a corpse or a dead body, and an akitic or a varagi. At the age of 29, Sadhart decided to renounce his worldly life, a process referred to as Mahabhinish Krman. He went to Raj Griha, where he met Bimbisar, and then to Vashali, where he met Allarak Kalam and Udak. At the age of 35, he reached Ga and meditated continuously for 49 days under a people tree on the banks of Niranjana or Falu river, and attained Nirvan. From now onwards, Siddhart was referred to as Buddha, the enlightened one.
Buddhism: First Sermon and Death
Siddhart delivered his first sermon at a place called as Sarnat near Vanasi, a process referred to as Dharmaakra Pariartan. He delivered his first sermon to his companion Condia. At the age of 80, Buddha died at a place called as Kushinagar or Pava, which was the capital of Mala Mahajanpad, a process referred to as Maha Pari Nirvar. Before his death, he told his favorite disciple Anand that the time of my passing is nearby and the blame should not go on the blacksmith kunda. He also said, "Upo bhawa, be your own light." After his death, his body relics were being distributed between seven to eight royal families, and a stupa was being constructed over it.
Buddhism: Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path
The four noble truths are: there is suffering, there is cause of suffering, there is sessation of suffering, and the path to sessation of suffering is referred to as aangika mark or madam mark (eightfold path). The eightfold path falls under three categories: wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline. Wisdom is knowledge plus experience. Ethical conduct involves whatever good things we have learned should be reflected in our character. Mental discipline involves right understanding and right thought.
Buddhism: Key Concepts and Sects
Key concepts include: There is no limit to the desire, and this becomes one of the causes for sorrow. The root cause of sorrow is attachment. We should be thankful for what we have. Right thought means stay away from empty rights and rituals. Right speech means always speak the truth. Right livelihood means earn your bread and butter through your sweat. Right action means try to reduce the things that we need. Right concentration and right mindfulness are important for mental discipline. There are two major sects of Buddhism: Hinyan and Mahayan. Hinyan are referred to as true followers of Buddha and do not believe in idol worship. Mahayan believe that we can follow the path preached by Buddha and also worship the idol of Buddha. They also believe in the concept of bodhic satwas. Vajrian form of Buddhism believed in tantric powers.
Buddhism: Chhatty and Vihar
Chhatty is a prayer hall, whereas vihar is a residing place for monk and nun. In the coming years, chatria and vihar became important centers of learning and they got converted into big monasteries. Examples include Tawang monastery, Tabo monastery, and Futkal monastery. Ajanta caves are located on the banks of river Vagura in Orurangabad district of Maharashtra and are solely dedicated to Buddhism. Allora caves are located in Chhatrapati Shambajinagar of Maharashtra and are dedicated to Buddhism, Janism, and Hinduism.
Buddhism: Monasteries and Mudras
Tabo monastery is located in Spiti Valley Himachel Pradesh and is known as Ajun of Himalayas. Futkal monastery is located in Zanskar Rage Ladak. Room monastery and anch monastery are located on the foothills of Kchanjanga in Sikkim. Shashur monastery and K monastery are located in Spiti Valley. Tix monastery is located in Ladak region and is dedicated to Padma Sambhav, referred to as second Buddha in Tibetan culture. Important mudras of Buddhism include: bhi spura mudra (signifies enlightenment), dhan mudra or samadhi mudra, dharma chakra mudra, abhai mudra (fearless), and anjeli mudra.
Jainism: Tirthankaras and Five Cardinal Principles
The session transitions to Jainism. The word Janism has been derived from the word jina, which basically means conqueror. As per Janism, there are 24 tankars who have propagated different teachings of Janism. Every turt has to undergo through five basic processes: Gerbakalyanak, janmakalyanak, dika kalyanak, ganakalyanak, and nirvan kalanak. The first one being rishabat or adinat whose symbol was bull. The 23rd Tertankar was Parshavat GI, and 24th Tertankar was Vardaman Mahavir GI. The five cardinal principles of Janism are Satya, ainsa, aura, aaya, aparria, and brahmachara. The initial four principles were given by the 23rd tankar parab nat gi, and the last principle brahmachara was given by Vardaman Mahavir GI.
